Monoclonal Antibodies as a Therapeutic Approach for Cancer

Monoclonal Antibodies as a Therapeutic Approach for Cancer INTRODUCTION Monoclonal anti-body cancer therapy is one of the most suitable therapeutic approach for hematologic malignancies and solid tumours for the past several years. This therapy of monoclonal anti-body join target cell, increase immune system, kills affected cells and slows tumour growth in patient. It is a laboratory produce mixture of homogenous anti-body molecules with empathy towards a particular antigen being generated by using a hybridoma by combining a B-cell with a single lineage of cells containing a specific antibody gene. A host of similar cells are produced that secrete the same anti-body. Owing to its specificity and high reproducibility, MAbs are more advantageous over polyclonal antibodies. MAbs are more often used in variety of applications like, research and diagnosis, therapeutic tools in cancer and immunological disorder, pharmacy, etc, as such are in huge demand in industry. Due to its high specificity, MAbs are increasingly used for basic immunological and molecular r esearch and have proven desirability. They are used in human therapy, cancer therapy, diagnosis of disease, commercial protein purification, suppressing immune response, hormone test, diagnosis of allergy, structure of cell membrane, purification of complex mixtures, identification of specialized cells, preparation of vaccines, increasing the effectiveness of medical substances (Edward, 1981). MAbs are used in applications against cancer cell-specific antigens which include an immunological response against targeted cancer cells. Availability of MAbs which recognizes immune cells antigen has resulted in improved diagnosis for lymphoma and leukemia. They are also being used in diagnosis of solid tumour especially for carcinoma of lungs, colon, and rectum. They are also useful in examining blood, sputum, biopsy samples of cancer cells or for materials discharged by cancer cells. At present MAbs are available for variety of cancers like ovarian, colorectal, lungs, etc (Beckman et al, 2007). MAbs interceded immunotherapy employs cells having cytotoxicity like monocytes and macrophages through antibody dependent cell cytotoxicity. MAbs binds complement proteins in cancer therapy which leads to direct cell toxicity that is complement dependent cytotoxicity (Carter, 2001). MAbs stops growth of tumour cells by blocking growth factors thus arresting the spread of tumour cells. MAbs not only detect cancer cells but also destroys them and clinical trials have revealed that MAbs stimulate partial reduction. Conjugate MAbs are combined with drugs and toxins and radioactive atoms are applied as delivery vehicles to take these substances through the body. MAbs flows in the body until it finds cancer cells with a matching antigen and delivers toxic substance to the place of the body. In chemotherapy, MAbs conjugate with chemotherapeutic drugs known as chemo labelled antibodies. The delivered drug causes damage to tumour and normal tissues. Clinical applicability of MAbs is because of its specificity and homogeneity. Another special feature of hybridoma production is that mixture of antigens can be used to produce specific antibodies. The treatment of cancer by MAbs has got highly advanced and its scope as therapeutic agent for untraced cancer has broadened. 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1 Production of Monoclonal Antibody The production of MAbs by hybridoma technol ­ogy was first discovered by German scientist, Georges Kohler and Cesar Milstein of Argentina. In 1976 they developed a technique involving fusion of a cancerous (immortal) mouse B-Cell myeloma with an immunized mouse plasma cell by creating a hybrid cell/hybridoma (Blaine, 2012). The hybrid cells are clones of anti ­body producing cells against desired antigen and spread rapidly to generate large amounts of antibody. Hybridoma is capable of rapid circulation and high antibody exuding rates as in myeloma cells, and can maintain antibody genes of mouse spleen cells (figure 1.1).            Figure 1.1: Production of monoclonal antibodies 2.1.1 Outline of production of MAbs The basic approach for production of MAbs includes, viz., purification and characterization of the desired antigen in sufficient quantity, immunization of mice with purified antigen, culture of myeloma cells which are unable to synthesize hypoxanthine-gua ­nine-phosphoribosyl transferase (HGPRT) enzyme necessary for the salvage pathway of nucleic acids, exclusion of spleen cells from mice and its fusion with the myeloma cells, and following fusion growth of hybridomas in hypoxanthine aminop ­terin thymidine (HAT) medium where only the fused cells have the ability to grow. Because of lack of HGPRT, unfused myeloma cell has no ability to grow in this HAT medium, and as such cannot produce DNA. Because of short life spans unfused spleen cells can ­not grow, only fused hybrid cells/hybridomas can grow in HAT medium. Since spleen cell partners produce HGPRT, Hybrid cells have the ability to grow in the HAT medium. Hybrid cells clones are produced from single host cells and the antib odies exuded by the differ ­ent clones are then tested for their capability to combine to the antigen using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). And finally then the clone is selected for further use (Zola, 2010). 2.2 Types of Monoclonal Antibodies The various types of anti-cancer monoclonal antibodies are: 2.2.1 Naked monoclonal antibodies Naked MAbs are antibodies that work for themselves and there is no drug or radioactive material connected to them. For cancer treatment, these are the most common type of MAbs. A large number of naked MAbs are attached to antigens on cancer cells but a few of them performs either by joining antigens to the non-cancerous cells or to the free-floating proteins. Naked MAbs works in a diverse manner as elaborated below: Some of them increase patient’s immune response against cancer cells by joining to them and thereafter acting as an indicator for the body’s immune system to destroy them. For instance, Alemtuzumab used against leukemia (Lin T.S, 2008). Some of them targets immune system at checkpoints. While some work by joining and blocking the antigens which are important signals for cancer cells and other cells that help cancer cells grow or spread). E.g. Trastuzumab: used against breast and stomach cancer (Hudis, 2007). Conjugated monoclonal antibodies Conjugated MAbs are antibodies where MAbs are combined to other substance like chemotherapy drug, different type of toxin, or a radioactive particle. Here MAbs are used for taking these substances directly to the cancer cells and mingles in the body until it finds the targeted antigen and delivers the toxic substance at the required place thereby reducing or somewhat eliminating the chance of causing damage to normal cells in other parts of the body. These are also called as tagged, labelled, or loaded antibodies. They are divided into a variety of groups, as given below: Radiolabeled Antibodies These have minute radioactive particles joined to them. E.g. Ibritumomab tiuxetan, acts against CD20antigen (Knox S .Jet al, 1996). Chemolabeled antibodies These have strong chemotherapy (or other) drugs joined to them and are also known as antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs). E.g Brentuximab vedotin (acts against CD30 antigen) attaches to the chemo drug called MMAE. 2.3 Mechanism of Action MAbs apply their antitumor effects by various types of means of action: It directs the immune system to destroy cancer cells where the immune system destroys the foreign invaders in our body but it doesnt identify the cancer cells. MAbs are directed to join to particular parts of a cancer cell and marks cancer cells thereby making it simple for immune system to find like Rituximab (Rituxan) attached to a CD 20 protein on B cells. When Rituximab attaches to the protein on the B cells it makes the cancer cells more detectable to the immune system and make it convenient for it to attack. MAbs targeting Ccncer requires to attach to appropriate tumour cell surface antigens with adequate quantities and lead to destruction of targeted cells (Ignacio Met al, 2007). Mode of action include tumour cell toxicity via antibody-conjugate, modulation of host immune system (such as ADCC/CDC), and blockade of ligand combining and signalling perturbation. By combining with the cytokines or other proteins which are critical for cancer cells for maintaining their uncontrolled growth Cancer cells depend upon blood vessels to give them oxygen and nutrients required for their growth and to attract blood vessels cancer cells send growth signals. MAbs blocks these growth signals and prevent a tumour from maintaining a blood supply to stop growth. In other words, if a tumour has already instituted a network of blood vessels then it blocks the growth signals making the blood vessels to die and resulting in tumour to shrink. E.g. bevacizumab (Avastin) (Margeret VM et al, 2003). It targets a growth signal ,vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), which cancer cells sends to attract new blood vessels. It stops a tumours these signals and stops them from connecting with their targets. Delivery of radiation to cancer cells. MAbs are joined with radioactive particles to give radiations directly to the cancer cells. But the drawback is that by this method most of the healthy cells are damaged .E.g. Ibritumomab (Zevalin) It joins itself to the receptors on cancerous blood cells and subsequently delivers the radiation. Delivery of chemotherapy to cancer cells. MAbs are joined J with chemotherapy drugs to give radiations directly to the cancer cells.E.g. Ado-trastuzumab (Kadcyla). It joins to HER2 receptors present on the breast cancer cells and cancer cells consume these antibodies which in turn releases a few molecules of chemotherapy. chemotherapy damages only to the cancerous cells. 2.4 Side effects and limitation of monoclonal antibodies 2.4.1 Side-effects MAbs generally have small side effects unlike chemotherapy. Only a mild aller ­gic reaction or rashes may occur with first admin ­istration of the drug. Other common side-effects are fever, headache, weakness, chills, nausea with vom ­iting, and low blood pressure (Chames p et al, 2009). Whereas grave side-effects are infusion reaction, low blood cells count, heart problem, skin problem and bleeding. Else other side effects of MAbs are with the targeted antigens. Bevacizumab used against tumour blood vessel growth can result in kidney damage, high blood pressure, bleeding with poor wound heal ­ing, and blood clots (Scolnik, 2009). Cetuximab which is used against lungs cancer and head and neck cancer can result in severe infusion reaction and can cause serious rashes. Rituximab which is used against leukemia andlymphoma can cause renal toxicity and serum sickness. 2.4.2 Limitations A serious limitation is that MAbs drugs are most costly as there are only a few FDA regulated drugs which are available in the market. A good number of new MAb drugs are still under development process. Since generic competitors are not there, the sale of cost-effective MAbs is quite good. MAbs are most commercialized and marketed products. Due to huge cost, MAbs therapies are a financial burden on patients. With only proper health planning and step-wise periodic therapies the problem can be sorted. MAbs is a proven therapeutic agent and as acted as mulching cow for the pharma ­ceutical industry. The typical doses of MAb drugs needed for treatment are significantly higher than those required for other drugs. Thus, large-scale production that is cost-effective in man ­ufacturing processes is required. However, the huge demand to increase production of these drugs and the drive to lower the cost of these expensive medicines is a continuous challenge to the present industry. This will further improve the efficiency of manufacturing processes. These challenges are overcome by streamlining downstream processes to increase product quantities, to implement proper quality with high-concentration product formulations with sufficient stability, dose-effective products, to reduce the cost, to develop methodologies for time ­line MAb production, and to develop alternative delivery systems (Rohrer T et al, 2009). 2.5 Monoclonal Antibody Drugs used in Cancer The treatment of monoclonal antibody depends upon the type of cancer and drug you are receiving. Some of the drugs are used in combination with others treatment like chemotherapy and hormone therapy. MAb drugs are used to treat advanced cancer that does not respond to chemotherapy or cancer that had returned. Some of the mAb drugs are: Bevacizumab: Humanized; used against colorectal cancer, breast carcinoma, on-small cell lung cancer and renal carcinoma Rituximab: Chimeric; used against leukemia and lymphoma Cetuximab: Chimeric; used against EGFR-positive metastatic colorectal cancer and carcinoma of head and lungs Trastuzumab: Humanized; used against ERBB2-positive breast carcinoma 2.6 Diagnostic potential of monoclonal antibodies The development of monoclonal antibodies to has provided considerable research of interest. There are monoclonal antibodies which are directed against B cells, natural killer cells, granulocytes, monocytes and platelets. Abs which reacts with different antigens is available which have definite mechanism of action (Khemshead et al, 1983). Several antibodies hare available which react with progenitor cells and these have been used as an aid in the diagnosis of different leukaemias. Neuroblastoma and lymphoma cells may have the appearance of small round cell tumours and be indistinguishable morphologically. MAb react predominantly with these tumour types and used for such diagnostic distinction. Antibodies reacting against tumours when it is coupled with radio label may be used for radioisotope scanning and small metastasis may be visualised using this. MAbs are being used in clinical evaluations and promise to provide a new generation of targeting agent.

Professional Ethics Essay

Lady Justice is the symbol of justice, where show the symbol of the justice: a sword symbolising the court’s coercive power, the scale representing an objective standard by which competing claims are weighed and the blindfold indicating that justice should be meted out objectively, without fear or favour, regardless of power, money, and wealth. Law is a system of rules and guidelines which are enforced through social institution to govern behaviour laws are made by governments, specifically by their legislatures. The formation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitutions (written or unwritten) and the rights encoded therein. The law shapes politics, economics and society in countless ways and serves as a social mediator of relation between people. Furthermore, law as the body of official rules and regulation, generally found in constitutions, legislation , judicial opinion, and the like, that used to govern a society and to control the behaviour of its members, so law is a formal mechanism of social control. Legal system is particular ways of establishing and maintaining social order. According to John Austin (English jurist born 1790) law is a â€Å"rule laid down for the guidance of an intelligent being by an intelligent being having power over him.† Professor Hart (Oxford professor of jurisprudence, born 1907) defined â€Å"law as a system of rules, union of primary and secondary rules.† Glanville Williams’ learning the law† define law is the cement of society and also an essential medium of change. Knowledge of law increases ones understanding of public affairs. Its study promotes accuracy of expression, facility in argument and skill in interpreting the written word as well as some understanding of social values†. In law, there are four processes in law formation. There are individual process, group process, social process and political process. Individual process means the set of norms beliefs and values which collectively forms his on her moral standards. Group process which means the surrounding environment of a situation plays a significant role in the norm, beliefs and values of an individual through exposure to these contexts * Cultural or religious * Social or political * economics or technological In group process, where a individual choices of norms, beliefs and values are made, ensures that all of the mentioned factors able to interact among one and another. As we can see in figure 1., where technological changes in communication bring political change in governance . the political changes make economic changes in spending and taxation patterns, which finally change cultural changes in personal lifestyle. Cultural changes Economic changes Political changes Technological changes In social process, all individuals in society do not have the same exposures to economic, technological, social, political, cultural and religious factors. There are some exposures come from: * Individual position  * Family units * Peer groups * Formal organisation The changing of norms, beliefs and values of individuals within society very clear, although delay impact upon the law. Actually, the social process involves an accumulation of power. In addition, people who have similar norms, beliefs and values easily form a group. It is natural join. Furthermore, in political process the norms, beliefs and values held by organisations, groups and individuals established into law can be seen as means of resolving conflict. Organisations, groups and individuals also have different opinions on norms should be done now and beliefs should be accomplished in the future. The different views have to be common to consistent and universal rules to be effective. According to OUMH 3203 professional ethics, â€Å"there are alternative on the ways in which this is done†,  * Presidential leadership * Institutional compromise * Congressional bargaining * Constituent pressure Selected representative are formally assigned the responsibility of the formulation of law in are representative system†. So, there are four process involves in formation of law Individual process is a set of norms, beliefs and values where forms his or her moral standards. Norms is behaviour where individual expects to everyone act when faced with a given situation. For a example baby dumping is a social crisis and has a chronic increase as many cases are occurring in Malaysian society. The baby dumping refers to discarding or leaving alone, for an extended period of time, a child younger than 12 months of age in a public or private setting with the intent to dispose of the child. Based on Bukit Aman Police Headquarters statistics found a total of 580 babies were found dumped between years 2000 to 2006. This number of cases increase every year where as much as 65 baby dumping cases has increased to 83 cases in the year 2006. In the first 5 months, almost everyday there are reports on dumped baby cases. You read it on the front page of the newspaper or see it on the nightly news†¦a newborn baby found in a back alley. This scenario had been more serious from day to day although there are a lot about this in the mass media. Child dumping is the practice of dumping offspring outside of legal adoption. The dumped child is called a foundling or throwaway. According to a reliable statistics, one baby is dumped every week. A figure that has trebled in the past decades, causes include many social and cultural factors as well as mental illness. Why an individual or teenagers due to unethical to baby dumping? * Family influence Let them to make such a problem in their life. Family break-ups happen after a long period of misunderstandings, fighting and unhappiness. Sometimes they happen suddenly and it is hard to understand why there needs to be change at all. Children are mostly affected by this kind of situation. If both their mother and father decided to a divorce and one cannot raise their child alone, tendency is that they will dump their child. This child will become homeless and found him alone. * Peer influence When children enter school, they influenced by peers with whom they interact every day. For example, if child friends engage with boyfriend or with stranger, the teenager too, may decide to do the same. * Life experience Some important events, where positive or negative, shape people’s lives and influence their ethical beliefs and behavior. For example, when a person have sexuality in teenage and does not get caught, make them to continue to have sexuality until end of their life span. Throughout this case, the norms of this case are to prevent baby dumping it’s necessary to educate individuals about sexuality. We support age-appropriate comprehensive sexuality education, and recommends that schools and communities provide comprehensive sexuality education to all youth and families. Maybe this prevention help teenage to avoid them such a situation Furthermore, Individuals experiencing unwanted pregnancies must receive support and services. Communities should examine their capacity to provide the range of supports and services needed by individuals experiencing unwanted pregnancies. These services must also be publicized; people cannot use services that they do not know about. Finally, education efforts should strive to increase communication among youth, families, and communities. Increased communication may minimize the shame and secrecy associated with an unwanted pregnancy and make young people more likely to take advantage of supports and services in their families and communities.

History of the Great Wall of China

Introduction I foremost went to China last twelvemonth to analyze for a semester.The feeling I had when I arrived at that place, was something that can non be explained in words.I felt frightened because I was so little in such a large city.Day by twenty-four hours, I started to experience much more comfy, to go more familiar with the topographic points, the people and even with Chinese food.Back so, I did non recognize what this experience would intend to me. After analyzing a semester in a metropolis near Shanghai, I decided to travel to see Beijing, the great capital of China. There, I had the chance to see the Great Wall and I was impressed by its enormousness, hence my ground for taking this subject for my concluding paper. Known as the â€Å"7th admiration of the universeâ€Å" , the Great Wall, which stretches for over Chinese district of more than 7000 kilometres, is the largest edifice of the ancient military defence and it took longer to construct. This colossal wall began to lift in the ninth century. The people who dominated the cardinal fields, for illustration, the center and lower basin of the Yellow River, decided to support themselves from the onslaughts of the northern small town with a wall that joined the walls, the beacons and palaces located along the boundary line and from which they could watch the motions of the enemy. In the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States, between 700 and 221 BC, the feudal Godheads lived locked in eternal wars to accomplish hegemony. The most powerful Godheads defended each other with walls that rose landforms advantage of boundary line countries. After 221 BC, when Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of the Qin Dynasty unified China, the bing walls were linked. The formidable defensive barrier therefore formed, traversing the mountains of the northern boundary line, served to drive the onslaughts of the mobile cultural groups mounted on horseback, from the Mongolian steppes. At that clip, the length of the Great Wall was good over 5000 stat mis. The Han Dynasty, replacement to the Qin, was lengthened to more than 10 1000 kilometres. Over the following 2000 old ages, the entire length of the different subdivisions of the Great Wall reached more than 50 1000 kilometres, plenty to circle the Earth length. Today when we talk about the Great Wall, we frequently refer to the constructed during the Ming Dynasty ( 1368-1644 ) .It starts at the Jiayu Pass in western Gansu Province, through 9 states, municipalities and independent parts, and ends on the Bankss of Yalu River in the northeasterly state of Liaoning. Its length is 7,300 kilometres, or 14 thousand Li, hence besides known as the Great Wall of 10,000 Li. The wall, built with immense bricks, masonry, crushed rock and loess, has a tallness of about 10 metres. The breadth of the top between 4 and 5 metres, leting the coincident measure 4 equestrians and therefore facilitated the motion of combat units such as the conveyance of grain and arms. Inside the walls were stepss and corridors taking to the doors. The wall was punctuated by towers that were used to hive away arms and cereal for the remainder of the soldiers and as a safety in clip of war. It is besides used as beacons to warn of the presence of enemy fire or fume signals. Of class, today the Great Wall no longer meets any military map. But its arresting architecture has won and continues to win the bosom of many people. The beauty of the Great Wall is manifested in its stateliness, its strength, its illustriousness and its naturalness. Seen from a distance, the high wall extends along the ridges of mountain ranges clearly following the silhouette of a elephantine winging firedrake, shut up position, the powerful entreaty of your fabulous study, formed by enforcing stairss, walls that appear to travel in sensed zigzag and steep ups and platforms.In one word, a comeliness. To the historical and cultural value of the Great Wall we can add besides the touristry value. The Chinese frequently say: â€Å"He who has non climbed the Great Wall is non a existent individual. † Tourists, whether Chinese or aliens, are proud to hold gone to the Great Wall. The many caputs of province and authorities who have visited China are no exclusion. Several well-preserved subdivisions have become points of tourer involvement, which every twelvemonth attracts 1000s of visitants. Among the best known include Badaling Pass, Platform Shimatai, Mutianyu, Shanhaiguan Pass, besides known as First Measure of China, and Jiayuguan Pass, the western terminal of the Great Wall. The Great Wall of China is an internationally recognizable icon and is a permeant metaphor used to specify modern China’s national character, political attitude. Is a set of monumental semisynthetic constructions that has stood the trial of clip, much like the centuries’ old Chinese civilization. It has besides come to incarnate the rich history of the Chinese people, declarative mood of their strength and ability as a state. This Wall has come to stand for quintessential Chinese attributes in modern-day society and it is cardinal to how China defines itself. However, there is no individual ‘Great Wall’ . It is a set of walls, as I said before, built periodically over 1000s of old ages by different dynasties for changing intents. The Great Wall, crystallisation of wisdom, difficult work, blood and perspiration of 1000000s of workers in ancient China, has worthily survived over a thousand old ages of vicissitudes. Her ageless Martial and timeless entreaty have become a symbol of the spirit of the Chinese state. Since 1987, the Great Wall is considered a universe heritage. Chapter one The history of The Great Wall Year of building The history of the Great Wall began in 221 BC during the Qin dynasty when were foremost built 5,000 stat mis in two phases from four to six old ages ( 214-210 B.C ) . During the 2nd phase, the wall was built along the Yellow and the Tao River, at the same time being built 44 metropoliss and established 44 administrative units.The population brought in these metropoliss had provided the care and the enlargement of the wall.During the Han Dynasty, its length reached 10,000 kilometers.Only few subdivisions of the impressive building of Han Dynasty had been kept until today.The new subdivision of the Great Wall dates from the Ming Dynasty, and in 270 old ages, the emperors opened 50 topographic points in which people had the chance to work.The wall, during the Ming Dynasty, crossed nine states and independent parts by mensurating 8851.8 kilometer and holding the best proficient and military qualities. From the full length over 6,000 stat mis were built by Ming emperor’s people. Types of wall building To construct, , the 7th admiration of the world’’ , the Chinese have used five types of wall building. The first 1 was rammed Earth, an old building technique, used in the loess tableland from Datong to Jiayuguan and in Inner Mongolia. In kernel, the rammed Earth was prevailing.Other types used were adobe, rock, brick and drop. It is said that a fifth of China ‘s population at some point participated in its building. It is besides said that the Great Wall of China is the largest graveyard in the universe, because during its building more than 10 million workers died and were buried at that place. If were taken all the bricks that were used to construct the Great Wall of China during the Ming Dynasty, the Chinese could construct a high wall that can give five bends to Earth. The chief trouble was that, to accomplish a strategic advantage, they had to took advantage of the terrain ( bring forthing accidents ) , and in the tops of the mountains were localized munitions that could keep a good surveillance of the land, and at that place was where soldiers lived and where they had commissariats and armaments. The stuffs they used were different and depended on what could be used in each country they built. The Qin and Han was built chiefly with dirt, clay, reeds, wood and rocks. The Ming, 15 centuries subsequently, used clay bricks and carven rocks. In some subdivisions of the Wall, to attest the quality of the bricks, each maker imprinted his seal on them, and the day of the month of bringing. Rock pavers were cut and shipped from distant preies, some of them came to weigh a ton and were up to 3 metres. The Ming built in two phases: foremost raised two walls and so the infinite between them was filled. The base was wider than the top. Then were built garrisons and crenelations where guns were placed. To forestall eroding by rain, a whole drainage system was devised. The boring work, the hapless diet, the whether, and the enemies that continually kept coming, affected the workers. It is estimated that Ming took advantage of 100 workers. The nomads attacked and broke the defences in many parts of the Wall, but he had already fulfilled the undertaking of directing the dismay to the topographic point where the ground forces was placed. They had a system of fume signals in detailing the onslaught and how many enemies were destroyed. Later, the Ming, in add-on to smoke signals, had used a codification for guns to give the dismay. The wall has a tallness between seven and 10 metres. Its base steps about seven metres and six upper manus. The floors were paved utilizing a mixture of rock and howitzer, supported by tree short pantss rollers arranged in several beds. At regular intervals terraced towers were built and this thing allowed the guards made aˆâ€ ¹aˆâ€ ¹ optical signals which offered them a great communicating that stretched for stat mis. A wall is interrupted at some points so they can hold defence points, to which the soldiers could withdraw if necessary. Each tower has alone and hard stepss to entree in order to confound the enemy. The barracks and administrative centres were located at greater distances. In add-on to its defensive map, the Great Wall played an instrumental function as a mean of communicating and commercialism opening the doors of China to the Western universe.The celebrated â€Å" Silk Road â€Å" passed trough China, and merchandisers from the Persian Gulf and the Eastern Mediterranean who traveled to the E could non make their finishs without traveling through the wall. The stuffs used are those available around the edifice. Near Beijing was used limestone and was besides used granite or fired brick.That made the wall really immune to impacts of siege arms. Defense The Great Wall is non merely a wall, but a defense mechanism system that integrated assorted walls, watchtowers and towers of fire for describing under the control of military degrees defined. For illustration, under the Ming, there were nine subdivisions of different military duties that are described as, ,Nine critical defense mechanisms in the borders’’ . It was assigned a commanding officer, describing straight to the National Ministry of Defence. About one million military personnels were deployed along the Great Wall to continue the state. During 2,000 old ages of building of the wall, the Chinese people learned a batch about defense mechanisms ( harmonisation with the topography and location of military forces, edifice stuffs, etc. ) The format of the walls varied depending on the topography and defense mechanism demands. In the strategic transitions, the walls were really high and solid, although they were low and narrow in high and steep mountains to cut down t he costs in money and labour. In some topographic points like Juyongguan or the Badaling subdivision, general regulation, the walls have seven to eight metres in tallness, four to five metres thick at the top and six to seven meters down. Inside the upper portion, there is a parapet of a meter barrier which prevented the soldiers fall, niches two meters high, every bit good as holes for pull or throw stones. In the strategic subdivisions, the upper portion is blocked by a series of cross walls to forestall the enemy to mount. During the dynasty of the Ming, General Qi Jiguang, celebrated for get the better ofing Nipponese plagiarists, improved the defence of the wall system, by adding towers, watchtower and the warehouses for arms and weaponry. Base on ballss are defensive strategic points throughout the wall.Fire coverage towers constituted one of the indispensable constituents of the defence system and an effectual agencies of conveying military information. During the Ming, sound s of detonation were added to heighten the consequence. As a defense mechanism system, the Great Wall crosses mountains, comeuppances and prairies, drops and rivers and harmonizes its construction to the complexness of the topography. It is a wonder of ancient architecture. The wall remained standing, so, for a long clip. Under the great Han dynasty became a great topographic point for the conflicts against the Huns, China utilizing projectiles countless ground forcess. During the following dynasty, the Chinese generals seized the immense wall as a base from which to come on in Hun Mongol heartland in Central Asia. That was the great migration of Germanic peoples. The building whose being had produced such effects spread over continents, merely partly protected China, and from its diminution in the 13th century was less protected. When in 1368 succumbed the Mongol dynasty in China under force per unit area from the Chinese reserves and riders steppe retreated to Central Asia, one of the first tasks the new Ming dynasty ( 1348-1644 ) aimed strictly Chinese, was the Reconstruction of the enforcing wall.

Mlk s Work Not Done - 1176 Words

MLK’s Work Not Done? In her opinion article â€Å"50 years later MLK’s work is not done† Donna Brazile, a CNN Political commentator, and Democratic strategist, uses Martin Luther King Jr. day as a platform to speak out against inequality within the nation. Superficially, her purpose seems to motivate us as a nation to change voting laws to allow more individual to vote. Consequently, there exists a strong political colored agenda to smear republicans and sway the nation to put more democrats in office. The article published on CNN, nationally read news site, and was directed to an audience encompassing the entire nation. She fantastically utilizes an event and person that is relatable to her entire audience to connect the audience with her purpose however, her politically heavy focus alienates a large portion of her audience that otherwise would with the overall purpose of correcting voting laws. In her article Brazile begins by calling to mind various marches made in MKL’s time and applies them to the present. The use of these well known events connected with the present pulls emotion from the audience and focuses it. The visual image of marching is utilized to convey an active forward motion towards equality. Brazile calls upon the recent movie Selma to bridge marching to voting which is the main focus of her article, equalizing voting laws and restrictions. The need for equalization is backed by various examples of Republicans restricting would be democratic voters fromShow MoreRelatedThe Effective Leadership Style of Martin Luther King Jr. Essay630 Words   |  3 Pageseffective leadership style. Martin Luther King Jr.’s leadership style Martin Luther King Jr. (MLK) is most known for his efforts for the civil rights movement in the 1960s. Martin Luther King Jr.’s leadership style is best described as charismatic. 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Another group that used violent tacticsRead MoreCivil War Movement : Martin Luther King Jr Malcolm X1212 Words   |  5 PagesMalcolm X Many years after blacks had received citizenship and the right to vote there was still much bias against them. Because of their skin color African Americans hadn’t been treated fairly and did not have the same rights as whites. In the 1950’s the Blacks stood up and fought hard for there rights and against the unfair social system that had formed. The civil rights movement, had many protests against segregation and discrimination towards African Americans. Many different leaders help uniteRead MoreWhat I Have Learned in American Government Roots and Reform1474 Words   |  6 Pageseducational facilities are inherently unequal. It is a victory for NAACP attorney Thurgood Marshall, who will later return to the Supreme Court as the nation s first black justice. August 1955 Fourteen-year-old Chicagoan was visiting family in Mississippi when he was kidnapped, and was beaten badly, shot, and dumped in the Tallahatchie River. They had done this because people had said that he allegedly whistled at a white woman. Two white men, J. W. Milam and Roy Bryant, where arrested for the murder andRead MoreWhy Should We Consider Morally Right Or Wrong?1167 Words   |  5 Pagesobjectively and universally as morally right or wrong, provided that Divine or Natural Law acts as reason to direct these inclination. Natural Law is a system of just principles aligned with that of our nature and God. One such principle is, â€Å"Good is to be done and pursued, and evil is to be avoided,† (Crito, 49d). Even though this principle is divine and universal - because men inclination should be directed by reason- they are not justly hold in common by all humans. One reason for this is that not allRead MoreCivil Rights Dbq670 Words   |  3 PagesAP History DBQ Analyze the changes that occurred during the 1960’s in the goals, strategies, and support of the movement for African American civil rights. A lot of changes have occurred during this time. Mixed emotions when it came to African Americans and Whites; deciding whether they wanted to be segregated or not. Voting, segregation, being equals just fighting for rights period. The changes that occurred during the 60s were the goals to fight for the rights of all African AmericansRead MoreComparing Martin Luther King And Malcolm X917 Words   |  4 Pages Malcolm X appreciated the egalitarian nature of Islam; regardless of class or color, everyone was equal in Allah s eyes (X, et al, 155). Because he did not see this happening in America, he took a different approach to civil rights. He believed in getting civil rights by any means necessary; to defend yourself, and to fight for equality, Malcolm X believed that anything done to achieve these goals was necessary (X, et al, 243). This brought civil rights outside of the realm of peaceful, legalRead MoreEssay on The Life of Martin Luther King Jr.1244 Words   |  5 PagesDrea m† speech. In 1957 Martin was elected president of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. During 1957 and 1968, Martin traveled more than six million miles to speak to people, over twenty-five hundred times. ( To the left is a picture of MLK delivering his â€Å"I Have a Dream† speech.) He wrote five books and many articles. â€Å"In these years, he led a massive protest in Birmingham, Alabama, that caught the attention of the entire world, providing what he called a coalition of conscience.† (MartinRead MoreAnalysis Of The Movie Night Of The Living Dead 1512 Words   |  7 Pagesthe sixties didn’t work†. Aside from the Vietnam War the nation was also divided by disputes about civil rights. On April fourth 1968 the nation’s top civil rights leader, MLK, was shot to death. MLK had lead the civil rights movement with peaceful methods. Yet his death had led to violence in almost every city in America. Riots began and soldiers were called in which ended with hundreds of people killed or injured. It was said that the man who went to prison for shooting MLK pleaded gulty thenRead MoreThe Civil Rights Movement : Martin Luther King Jr. Essay1690 Words   |  7 Pagestowards blacks is achievable through nonviolence. A gunshot will challenge the peaceful speech for many followers. (Kagan, 1996)This rhetorical analysis will be covering the Kairos of Martin Luther King’s speech. Thesis: Despite Martin Luther King Jr.’s risk to life and arrests, he was willing to state â€Å"I have a Dream†, for all to hear because his main purpose was to create a peaceful unity between black and white Americans. The south would continue to subjective African Americans in the United States